Annotated Bibliography of Contracted and Uncontracted Braille

Eleanor Pester, Project Director/Co-author
Kristopher Scott, Project Assistant/Co-author

The annotated bibliography below comprises several works concerning the advantages and disadvantages of contracted and uncontracted braille. Though we have tried to be as inclusive as possible, it is likely there are some important sources we have yet to discover. Thus, we will continue our research regarding the matter and will do our best to find, review, and insert within this database any other sources significant to the subject. Your suggestions regarding additional sources are welcome. Lastly, though we have provided brief summaries regarding the opinions, experiments, and findings described in some of the sources, we ask that you please read the original articles before you arrive at any definitive conclusions about the benefits and limitations of contracted and uncontracted braille codes.

Research on Contracted and Uncontracted Braille

Ashcroft, S. C. (1960). Errors in oral reading of braille at elementary grade levels. Doctoral dissertation, University of Illinois.
Outlines the author's study in which 720 students in grades 2 through 6 read aloud twelve passages of increasing difficulty while reading errors were documented. From those causing the most errors to those causing the least, the orthographical categories were as follows: short form words; multiple-cell contractions; combinations of orthography; lower-cell contractions; upper-cell contractions; words in full spelling, and alphabet words. Ashcroft also recorded the types of errors made; the occurrences from most to least were as follows: missed dots; ending problems; reversals; added dots; association; gross substitutions; vertical alignment, and horizontal alignment. The grade level of the students was also found to have impacted the order of difficulty of the error types and the magnitude of errors. As grade level increased, reversal and substitution errors decreased while ending and association errors increased. However, the rank of difficulty for missed dots, added dots, and vertical and horizontal alignment errors remained stable throughout the grade levels.

Biggs, I. (1950). The introduction of grade two braille in the primary grades. Outlook for the blind, 44, 103-105.
Describes the processes and results of an experiment in which beginning braille readers whose ages ranged from six to ten years were successfully taught Grade 2 Braille. Some of the advantages the experimenters found to teaching Grade 2 from the beginning of a reading program were the elimination of the relearning process occurring when a child begins reading Grade 1 with Grade 2 as the ultimate goal, and the capacity of Grade 2 Braille to sustain the comprehension of slow learners and those with attention deficit who may not otherwise reach the end of a sentence made long by an unabbreviated braille code.

Bruteig, J. M. (1987). The reading rates for contracted and uncontracted braille of blind Norwegian adults. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 81 (1), 19-23. (Norwegian)
Reports on an analysis (see Norwegian Institute of Special Education study in this bibliography) of 35 late-blind adults (20 males, 15 females), aged 20 to 71 years whose reading rates for uncontracted and contracted Norwegian braille were recorded. Results were obtained by two methods: 1) by calculating the reading rates of continuous, normal contracted text and comparing those rates to rates obtained through the reading of continuous, uncontracted text, and 2) by comparing the rate of identification for contracted single words with the rate of identification for those same words written in uncontracted braille. The study concluded that reading rates were higher when subjects read contracted text and contracted single words. Note: Norwegian braille contains what the author claims to be "moderate" occurrences of contractions: 50-60 percent of the words are written without use of contractions. This article also includes tables that report each individual's WPM speed and the rate percentage difference between contracted and uncontracted reading rates.

Burklen, K. (1932). Touch reading of the blind. New York: AFB. (German)
Reflects the author's study of dot configuration and its effect upon braille cell recognition. For the study, Burklen had 30 school-aged, skilled braille readers read 39 single braille characters comprising nailheads on wood. To reduce finger sensitivity, the author required the students to wear rubber caps over their reading fingers as they explored the braille cell, in which the distance between dots measured .236 in., instead of .090 in., the distance common in standard English braille. Upon completion of the study, the author concluded that the configuration of dots, not their number, most affected the legibility of braille cells.

Durre, I. K. (1996 May/June). How much space does grade 2 braille really save? Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 90, 247-251.
Reports on a study in which the space saving capacity of Grade 2 Braille was calculated. The study found that, contrary to popular belief, contracted braille reduces print by only 20 percent instead of 30 percent. The unique method of calculation considered "the frequency of letter strings in the English language; rules governing the use of contractions; overlapping and duplication of existing contractions; and occurrences of punctuation marks, composition signs, numbers, and blanks."

Harley, R. K., & Rawls, R. (1970). Comparison of several approaches for teaching braille reading to blind children. Education of the Visually Handicapped, 2 (2), 47-51.
Reports the findings of a study in which six groups of children aged 4 through 11 were tested for reading comprehension and accuracy after using three different reading media for one academic year. Classroom literacy materials represented either Grade 1, Grade 2 or initial teaching alphabet (ITA) phonemic codes. Moreover, two contrasting reading series were used to teach each code: the Scott Foresman Series represented an analytical approach, i.e., stressing the learning of whole word forms, and the Lippincott Series, which represented a synthetic approach, i.e., a systematic approach to reading using "mechanical 'decoding' skills." At the end of the year all children were tested using the Gilmore Oral Reading Test and the Slosson Oral Reading Test. Test results showed the following:

Hooper, M. (1946). Braille contractions and children's reading vocabularies: A statistical study. Unpublished Study. 16.
Investigates the relationship between the development of children's reading vocabularies and the difficulties involved in learning different braille codes, i.e., Grade 1, Grade 1 ½, and Grade 2. The author asserts that a majority of the signs common to standard English braille are used in the vocabularies of children in the first grade and that by the sixth grade, all but five signs have been introduced. Thus, early introduction of braille signs seems to influence directly the usefulness of the sign to the child's literacy. As the author maintains, "If children in the first grade can master Standard English Grade 2 Braille, most of the signs would appear often enough in their written literature to be of real use to them. . . . "

Lorimer, J., & Tobin, M. J. (1979). Experiments with modified grade 2 braille codes to determine their effect on reading speed. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 73 (8), 324-328.
Summarizes the results of four experiments conducted in Britain in which 81 blind children and adults (age range for subjects was 14 years and over) were used to compare standard English Grade 2 Braille with three reduced codes and one expanded code. Major factors considered in the experiments were reading rates, retention of the basic seven-line structure, ease of learning, and avoiding an increase in the bulk of braille materials. Experiment 1 utilized a reduced code of 57 contractions comprised largely of single-cell upper word and part-word signs in hopes that Grade 2 space would be increased by 6 percent. Reading rates, however, decreased significantly when the number of contractions was reduced, though test subjects were not allowed to familiarize themselves with the modified code before testing. Experiment 2 was based on a reduced code containing 73 contractions. Grade 2 space was increased by 4.5 percent. The reduction in the number of contractions, however, failed to increase average reading rates significantly, even though subjects were informed of the modifications and allowed some practice: in experiment 2, just nine of the 16 subjects read the reduced code slightly more rapidly than the standard code. Experiment 3 was based on a code of 81 contractions selected on the basis of their potential space-saving ability. Just over 2 percent of braille space was saved. Subjects were given the details regarding the modifications and were allowed some practice. As in experiment 2, experiment 3, and the two replications of experiment 3, no significant change in average reading rates was indicated, as just 14 of the 39 subjects read the modified code more quickly than the standard code. Experiment 4 used an extended code formed by adding 37 signs to standard Grade 2 Braille. Grade 2 space was reduced by approximately 3.5 percent. Though subjects were provided with modification details and allowed practice time, reading rates for the modified code decreased significantly: just one of the 12 subjects was able to read the modified code more rapidly than the standard code.

Lowenfeld, B., & Abel, G. L. (1967). Methods of teaching braille reading. San Francisco State College (Contract No. OE-5-10-0009). Office of Education, U. S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare.
Represents the compilation of survey data concerning the teaching practices of 289 local schoolteachers and 73 residential schoolteachers. According to those surveyed, braille prereading activities were initiated during kindergarten and followed up with more intensive braille teaching during the first grade. Moreover, the authors found that one third of the schools began reading instruction by teaching the braille alphabet, while two thirds chose to begin reading instruction by teaching whole words and meaningful sentences. Further, most schools affirmed that Grade 2 Braille is chosen as the primary medium for most beginning reading curricula.

Nolan, C., & Kederis, C. (1969). Perceptual factors in braille word recognition. American Foundation for the Blind: New York, 24-33, 51-52.
Details nine research studies conducted by the American Printing House for the Blind in which different aspects of the braille code and their influence upon the reader were investigated. Below are those findings significant to issues regarding contracted and uncontracted braille as they appear in the text under their corresponding study.

  1. Study 1: Legibility of Single-Cell Braille Characters
    • Character recognition time is positively related to the number of dots in the character.
  2. Study 2: Effects of Word Length, Familiarity, and Orthography on Recognition Thresholds for Braille Words
    • Recognition times for words increased as they became longer and less familiar and contained contracted braille forms.
    • The effects on word recognition times of increase in word length and decrease in familiarity augmented one another.
    • Orthography interacted differentially with the familiarity variable in that for familiar words, contracted words had the shortest recognition times, while for unfamiliar words, uncontracted words had the shortest recognition times.
    • The effects of this interaction were augmented with the increasing length of the words studied.
    • The ratio of recognition time to cover time decreased as words grew longer and contained contractions. However, this ratio increased as words become [sic] less familiar.
  3. Study 3: Influence of the Number of Dots and the Position of Dots on Recognition Thresholds for Braille Words
    • Fast readers found words containing contractions easiest to recognize, while slower readers found words without contractions easiest.
    • The number of dots within a word, the position of dots within a word, and the presence or absence of contractions within a word were significantly related; however, no clear-cut patterns of relationship were discernible.
  4. Study 4: Influence of Braille Contractions upon Recognition Thresholds for Words
    • The effects of the three contraction factors studied varied complexly with each other and the familiarity factor. Some of these interactions were (a) As the number of contractions increased from one to two, recognition of familiar words became easier and that of unfamiliar words more difficult. (b) Familiar words with lower contractions were easier to recognize than familiar words with contractions having dots in all rows of the braille cell. The reverse was true for unfamiliar words. (c) Familiar words with contractions occurring in their initial parts were easiest to recognize, while unfamiliar words with contractions falling in their final parts was easiest.
  5. Study 5: Effects of Context upon Recognition Thresholds for Braille Words That Vary in Length, Familiarity, and Orthography
    • For familiar words, the effects of context in reduction of recognition times were much greater for contracted words than for uncontracted words.
  6. Study 6: Effects of Context Occurring in the Continuous Text on Reading Times for the Stimulus Words of Study 2
    • The effects of variation in word length, familiarity, and orthography on reading times for braille words were similar to those found in Study 2, with three exceptions: (a) In Study 2 the increase in recognition times of words with increases in length appeared to be positively accelerated for all types of orthography. In this study the curve for recognition times of uncontracted words with increases in length appeared to be negatively accelerated. (b) In this study, a differential reaction to unfamiliar contracted words occurred for the groups of fast and slow readers. Slow readers required considerably more time to read unfamiliar words than did fast. Also, slow readers required more time to read the contracted unfamiliar as compared with the uncontracted than did fast readers. (c) In Study 2 the familiar contracted words were recognized in less time than their uncontracted counterparts while among unfamiliar words, contracted words required greater times. In the present study in almost all cases contracted words required longer reading times than uncontracted words.
  7. Study 7: Effects of Familiarity, Length, and Orthography of Braille Words on Their Recognition Thresholds at the Elementary School Level
    • For unfamiliar words the shift from uncontracted to contracted orthography resulted in much greater increases in word recognition times for elementary as compared to high school readers.
    • Elementary readers appeared to make more errors in recognition of contracted characters than did high school readers.
  8. Study 8: Braille Word Recognition by Readers of Low Intelligence
    • Contracted words of all types were more difficult for low IQ readers, while normals [sic] found contracted familiar words easier to recognize than uncontracted familiar words.
  9. Study 9: Effect of Character Recognition Training on Braille Reading

As a result of the nine studies, the authors concluded that because the number of dots in the punctate character directly affected legibility, the addition of dots to a character, e.g., "nine-dot-braille" will likely increase reading time and difficulty. The authors further state that the "same thing appears true for increasing the complexity of a code through use of a contracted and abbreviated forms or increasing the number of forms of characters included" (p. 52).

Norwegian Institute of Special Education. (1985). An investigation on reading rates in contracted/uncontracted braille.
Reports on a study conducted to answer the following questions: 1) What effect do contractions have on the reading rate for Norwegian braille? 2) What is the importance of the length of the words for tactile reading? The late-blind subjects of the study comprised 15 women and 20 men, ages 21-71, with the average age being 45. All had learned contracted braille, albeit they could be considered infrequent braille readers: less than half the group read braille daily; several members admitted to reading braille twice a week or less. The effect of contractions on readability was tested by

The influence of word length on readability was investigated by

Test results demonstrated that, on average, the contracted text was read 18.5% faster than the uncontracted text. Moreover, single, contracted words were identified, on average, 33.6% faster than uncontracted words. Regarding word length and readability, tests demonstrated that, regardless of whether words are contracted, shorter word length facilitates a faster reading rate.

Ross, D. B., Scheira, J., Urick, M., & Hershey, H. (1999). A study of the space saving capacity and usage of grade 1, grade 2, and a modified grade 1 ½ braille. Division on Visual Impairments Quarterly, 44 (4), 12-13.
Provides an overview of three studies (Durre, Kutztown, and a Grade 1½ study) in which the space saving capacity of Grade 2 Braille (measured to be approx. 20% instead of the previously believed 30%) was found to be largely the result of 100 most frequently used contractions. The authors conclude the article by encouraging further studies relating to the following questions: How do Grade 2 and the modified Grade 1½ compare in complexity? If braille were more accessible in alternative formats would that increase literacy? What happens when a person is unable to learn the complexities of Grade 2 and alternative braille formats are unavailable?

Troughton, M. (1992). One is fun: Guidelines for better braille literacy. [on-line]. Available: http://snow.utoronto.ca/best/special/OneIsFun/cover_page.htm
Strongly advocates the teaching of Grade 1 Braille when appropriate, e.g., to individuals with multiple handicaps, to individuals with learning disabilities, and to individuals who have neither the time nor the resources to learn the "complicated" Grade 2 code. Throughout the volume, Troughton provides situations and examples in which Grade 1 is a more accessible reading medium. The author's arguments are thoughtful but backed by unavailable research and study results.

Unified Type Committee of the American Association of Workers for the Blind. Fourth biennial report. (1913). The Outlook for the Blind, 7, 1-48. Outlines the UTC study indicating that the most legible braille cells were those containing fewer dots. Moreover, after investigating the effect of the number of dots on the readability of words and contractions, the UTC concluded the following: 1) Words comprising whole-cell, part-word contractions were read in less time and with fewer errors than were the same words in full spelling. 2) Words comprising whole-cell, whole-word contractions were read in less time, albeit with more errors, than were the same words in full spelling. 3) Words comprising lower-cell, whole-word contractions required more time to read and caused more errors than did the same words in full spelling.

Published Opinions on Contracted and Uncontracted Braille

Duran, P. (1994). A call for reason and action. Unpublished manuscript [on-line]. Available: www.isc.rit.edu/~easi/easisem/brl.htm
Suggests we "abandon the myriad braille systems and the current braille devices and replace both of them with state-of-the-art tactile systems and tactile devices." Duran refers to the awkwardness, unavailability, and lack of brailling equipment as reasons to discontinue the use of contemporary braille code in favor of "the commercial technology that is about to come to pass which shall profoundly affect all braille readers." The author reinforces his argument by describing the advantages to individuals who are blind of word processors and talking/recording devices, technology he believes will obsolesce braille. Regarding Grade 1 and Grade 2 Braille, Duran favors Grade 1, citing Grade 2's relatively long learning curve, the code's complexity, and the inability of most multi-disabled children to learn it as reasons to discontinue teaching Grade 2.

Johnson, L. (1996). The braille literacy crisis for children. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 90 (3), 276-278.
Summarizes and addresses three theories concerning the decrease in braille literacy among children who are visually impaired. The three theories regarding this alleged deterioration of braille literacy are 1) braille is obsolete and children rely more on assistive technology; 2) teachers lack the qualifications to teach braille; 3) the braille code is too difficult and should be simplified. Johnson's arguments against the first two theories are based on opinion and some facts. Addressing the theory that the braille code is too difficult and should be simplified, the author argues that Grade 1 is already an efficient, simplified code, and she strongly advocates teaching it to the beginning student. To strengthen her point, she refers to those studies that are outlined in Marjorie Troughton's work, One is Fun, and which demonstrate the ease of learning and reading Grade 1 Braille.

Johnson, L. (1989 Dec.). Let's teach grade one braille. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 83, 491.
Communicates the author's advocacy for the instruction of Grade 1 Braille to beginning students. Citing the spelling and reading achievements of one of her students whom she started on Grade 1 Braille, Johnson champions Grade 1 as more efficient than Grade 2 in teaching children necessary grammatical fundamentals.

Mangold, S. (1999). Trends in the use of braille contractions in the United States: Implications for Unified Braille Committee decisions. Unpublished manuscript.
Besides including a short, though insightful, overview regarding the long-standing debate over which braille code best promotes the quick and successful learning of braille, the article primarily discusses current trends relating to the modification of the code. Such modifications frequently involve the elimination of certain contractions in order to make the code more accurately reflect the print formats used in mainstream settings. In addition to listing those contractions recommended by the Unified Braille Committee II for deletion, (e.g., ble, com, dd, to, into, by) the author relays the following four types of contractions that she and an increasing number of educators advocate discontinuing:

  1. "Whole-word lower contractions that are identical in configuration to upper single letter whole-word contractions. They include; be, were, his, was, in, and enough. These lower contractions are not easily read by many students even at advanced reading levels when contextual clues are plentiful."
  2. "Double-letter lower contractions that are identical in configuration to single letters. They include; bb, cc, dd, ff, and gg."
  3. "Two-cell contractions that begin with the dots 5-6. They include; ence, ong, ful, tion, ness, ment, and ity. There is often confusion between letters preceded by the letter sign and these contractions."
  4. "Two-cell contractions that begin with dot 6. They include; ation and ally. These contractions are often interpreted as capitalized letters rather than contractions."

Moreover, Mangold supports her argument for a modified code containing fewer contractions by referring to the following details, which help demonstrate the perceived value of Grade 1 to those processes involved in teaching and learning literacy:

Millar, S. (1997).Reading by touch (pp. 176-214). New York: Routledge.
Relays information related to the author's investigation of contractions and their relation to the processes of reading, spelling, and writing braille. Millar asserts that single whole word contractions have "clear advantages for making the early learning process easier and more meaningful," though they also pose disadvantages for learning to spell. "The early (gradual) introduction of contracted forms…should increase the familiarity of contractions within words and consequently decrease recognition time." The author also concludes that there is much about braille reading we do not know, and she encourages further study.

Nilsson, B. Braille: A medium for everybody? [on-line]. Available: http://www.braille.org/papers/visualim/vib82052.html
Recommends the discontinuation of contracted braille in favor of "sign by sign correspondence between braille and inkprint." According to Nilsson, the major advantage to sign by sign uncontracted braille is the ease at which computers, software, and other devices such as the IBM Brailler can translate and print its code, greatly enhancing the ease at which blind users can access information.

Walhof, R. (2001 April). Braille contractions are they really so hard? Braille Monitor, 44 (4), 258-261.
Focuses on refuting a few of the most popular arguments for teaching beginning braille students uncontracted braille instead of contracted braille. Walhof first advocates the elimination of the terms Grade 1 and Grade 2 in favor of the more accurate and less daunting designations, contracted and uncontracted. Referring to her experience in teaching braille to adults, the author asserts that instead of feeling overwhelmed or confused when encountering contractions, adult students were able to learn the standard braille code twice as fast when contractions were introduced early and used often within the curriculum. Children, too, Walhof argues, do not regard contractions as a serious obstacle, but rather, seem to comprehend their purpose rapidly and memorize them quickly. With regard to what some teachers consider a shortage of uncontracted printed materials, the author asserts that such a scarcity should strongly influence teachers to accelerate the introduction of contractions into a beginning student's curriculum.

Recommended Use of Contracted and Uncontracted Braille for Teaching and Reading

Caton, H. (1979 October). A primary reading program for beginning braille readers. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 73 (8), 309-313.
Discusses the processes involved in constructing a Grade 2 Braille primary reading and writing program for beginning readers [eventually labeled Patterns: The Primary Braille Reading Program]. Using past research (Ashcroft, Nolan, Kederis, Unified Type Committee, etc.), those writing the program were able to create a curriculum formulated to introduce the student to specific braille complexities only during the most opportune time in the student's learning curve. For example, considering past research indicating the difficulty a beginning braille student has in differentiating among characters of a similar shape, Caton writes that during the making of Patterns, the "selection of vocabulary took into consideration that words and characters of this type should not be introduced together in beginning levels of the reading series." Moreover, the author indicates that in addition to investigating what order of vocabulary best facilitates learning, the authors also gave consideration to the best method for teaching braille to the beginning student, deciding ultimately to retreat from the visual nature of most primary programs and incorporate a "very strong experience approach . . . with certain phonological and syntactical notions added as the students progress through the various levels."

Elms, H. (1959). Short cuts in learning braille. International journal for the education of the blind, 9 (1), 4-9.
Conveys a guide to tricks and tips for teaching beginning students braille. Elms briefly recommends that one teach Grade 2 Braille to the student as soon as possible and certainly by the middle grades, as the code is "definitely a short cut for reading" and more widely available than Grade 1 Braille.

Harley, R. K., Truan, M. B., & Sanford, L. D. (1997). Communication skills for visually impaired learners: Braille, print, and listening skills for students who are visually impaired (2nd ed.). Springfield: Charles C. Thomas.
Provides guidelines for instructors seeking successful methods for teaching their students reading, writing, and listening skills. The authors advocate the use of Grade1 Braille for directing low functioning students toward literacy. Phonemic awareness for braille students is also encouraged, and several suggestions are offered regarding adaptive strategies for teaching it; e.g., the authors point to some of the contractions in Grade 2 Braille, such as ch, sh, th, st, and gh that facilitate the learning of phonemic concepts.

Loomis, M. S. (1948). Which grade of braille should be taught first. New York: Columbia University.
Argues in favor of teaching the beginning braille student Grade 2 Braille instead of Grade 1 or Grade 1 ½. Loomis asserts that when the student begins a braille program in Grade 1 Braille, 717 out of 1811 simple words will be changed when the child begins learning Grade 2. This altering of the words that occurs as the child moves from Grade 1 to Grade 2, she maintains, disallows the child the benefit of quick recognition resulting from constant practice with words in their final form. Loomis also emphasizes how because Grade 2 requires fewer braille cells, the code can help the student greatly increase reading rates. To dispute those who claim contractions are too complicated for the beginning reader, the author contends that many of the Grade 2 words a beginning student learns do not contain contractions. Loomis also attempts to dispel four of the other most popular objections to teaching beginning students Grade 2 Braille: 1) Syllabication, viewed by some as essential to the literary development of the child, is omitted in Grade 2 Braille; 2) The use of contractions hinders the student's spelling ability; 3) The joining of words together without a space is unacceptable; 4) Schools are unwilling to adopt Grade 2 for beginning students until the benefits of such a curriculum are proven to be more successful than a Grade 1-based curriculum.

Swenson, A. M. (1997). A process approach to teaching braille writing at the primary level. In D. P. Wormsley & F. M. D'Andrea (Eds.), Instructional strategies for braille literacy (pp. 350-358). New York: AFB. (Reprinted from Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 85 (5), (May 1991), pp. 217-221.
Explains how new teaching strategies in which sighted children are immersed in literary materials can be adapted to teaching braille writing at the primary level. In these new literacy programs, children are encouraged to write daily on topics they choose. Similarly, children who are blind should be immersed in brailled books and should be assigned several functional tasks in which they practice reading and writing braille, e.g., homework lists, mainstream schedules, letters, journals, etc. Throughout the article, the author details strategies aimed at guiding the teacher in modeling a braille writing program as "print" intensive as that of a sighted child. Swenson does specify that Grade 2 Braille should be used from the beginning of reading and writing instruction.

Willoughby, D. M., & Duffy S. L. M. (1989). Handbook for itinerant and resource teachers of blind and visually impaired students. Baltimore: National Federation of the Blind.
Strongly encourages the use of Patterns for kindergarten through second grade students who are ready to begin reading, since it is believed by the authors that "Grade II Braille is used for the youngest children and for adults." The authors further assert that second grade and older students should always use Grade 2 Braille when writing. Of the six chapters concerning braille, two focus on typical braille-teaching strategies, e.g., alphabet learning, tactile discrimination, increasing reading rates, writing skills. The work also lists several texts that can supplement reading and writing exercises.

Wormsley, D. P., & D'Andrea, F. M. (Eds.). (1997). Instructional strategies for braille literacy. New York: AFB.
Contains contributions from Diane P. Wormsley, Frances Mary D'Andrea, Kitch Barnicle, Carol Ann Layton, and Madeline Milian and "represents the compilation of successful instructional strategies for teaching braille to blind and visually impaired students that will allow them to achieve braille literacy to the best of their abilities." Chapter 3, "Learning to Read, Reading to Learn," stresses the importance of a "phonics" sound-symbol approach to teaching the beginning student braille. Wormsley also advocates starting students with Grade 2 Braille to "ensure that students become familiar with the unphonetic aspects of the braille code as early as possible so they overlearn the frequently used words that contain contractions used in a nonphonetic way." Regarding proper tracking patterns, the author recommends a program such as the Mangold Developmental Program of Tactile Perception and Braille Letter Recognition. A particularly useful element of chapter 3 is the overview of several popular teaching strategies, e.g., Basal, language experience, literature-based, whole language, and strategies for teaching each of these approaches. This resource also devotes chapter 4 to strategies for teaching individuals who are adventitiously blind. Entitled "Making the Transition from Print to Braille," it stresses the importance of an individualized approach but suggests some general exercises designed to encourage the student and retain his/her interest, e.g., brailling simple, albeit useful, information such as telephone numbers, labels describing clothes, etc. A whole language approach is also encouraged, especially for older students who need and enjoy writing exercises that allow self-expression.

Ziegel, H., & Ostendorff, M. E. (June 1953). Why make braille more difficult for beginners? International journal for the education of the blind, 2 (4), 182-183.
Suggests teaching beginning readers Grade 1 ½ Braille. Authors believe students who have adequately learned Grade 1 ½ Braille are better equipped to read independently at an earlier age than those who begin their training with Grade 2.

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