PRINTED TRANSCRIPTION OF BRAILLE TEXT THE BRAILLE WORLD ATLAS Transcribed by Fred L. Gissoni American Printing House for the Blind Louisville, Kentucky Note. In 1992, the American Printing House for the Blind produced THE BRAILLE WORLD ATLAS. This was a part of the APH Century Series. The one volume book was published in braille. It is not a braille version of a print atlas. This meant that a sighted teacher working with a blind student would have no idea of just what the atlas had to say about each of its 37 maps unless he or she could read braille. Gloria Summers of Idaho Falls, Idaho, a teacher aide in the area of work with students who are visually impaired, made an extremely persuasive and eloquent case for the need of such a transcript. Her words hit home and the work which follows is the result. F. L. G. FRONT COVER THE BRAILLE WORLD ATLAS Imperatore & Sanders Edited by David A. Bice In One Volume APH Century Series American Printing House For The Blind P O Box 6085 Louisville, Kentucky 40206-0085 2-06000-00 TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: The above number is the catalog number of the Century Series edition of the atlas. This number is not correct. The correct number is 5-06000-00. END OF NOTE NEXT PAGE THE BRAILLE WORLD ATLAS by William Imperatore James Sanders EDitor David A. Bice In One Volume Pages I-VIII and 1-109 APH Century Series American Printing House for the Blind Louisville, Kentucky 40206-0085 NEXT PAGE William Imperatore, Ph.D., is Professor of Geography at Appalachian State University and is Coordinator of the North Carolina Geographic Alliance. He is the author of four social studies textbooks. James Sanders holds the bachelor of science degree in industrial technology and is currently a graduate student in geography at Appalachian State University. David A. Bice holds the master of arts degree in history and geography and is the author of over 25 books in social studies and history. THE BRAILLE WORLD ATLAS Copyright 1992, 2nd Edition American Printing House for the Blind, Inc. Louisville, Kentucky All rights reserved The Century Series is funded through contributions from friends of the American Printing House for the Blind Inc. NEXT BRAILLE PAGE Table of Contents Table of Contents Pages III-VII Preface Page VIII The Solar System 1, Plate 1 The Earth at the Summer and Winter Solstice 3, 4 Plate 2 World Map with Continents and Oceans Identified 5, 6 Plate 3 The World with Lines of Latitude and Longitude 7, 8 Plate 4 The World Centered on the Pacific Ocean 9, 10 Plate 5 Map of the World with the International Dateline 11, 12 Plate 6 Polar Projections of the World 13, 14 Plate 7 Polar Projection of Northern Hemisphere with Selected Cities 15-17 Plate 8 World Mountain Systems 19, 20 Plate 9 World Climates 21-23 Plate 10 World Population Centers 25-28 Plate 11 North America 29-31 Plate 12 Canada 33, 34 Plate 13 Regions of the United States 35, 36 Plate 14 The Northeast 37 Plate 15 The Southeast 39 Plate 16 The Midwest 41, 42 Plate 17 The Southwest 43, 44 Plate 18 Mountain States 45, 46 Plate 19 Pacific States 47-49 Plate 20 Middle America 51, 52 Plate 21 Mexico and Central America 53-55 Plate 22 Caribbean Islands 57, 58 Plate 23 South America 59-61 Plate 24 Europe 63-66 Plate 25 The Commonwealth of Independent States 67-69 Plate 26 Africa 71-75 Plate 27 Northern Africa 77,78 Plate 28 Southern Africa 79-82 Plate 29 Middle East 83-86 Plate 30 Asia 87, 88 Plate 31 South Asia 89, 90 Plate 32 Southeast Asia 91-93 Plate 33 East Asia 95-97 Plate 34 Australia and New Zealand 99-101 Plate 35 Pacific Cultural Regions 103-105 Plate 36 Island Nations of the Pacific 107-109 Plate 37 PREFACE THE BRAILLE WORLD ATLAS is the work of many people, each person contributing special components to make this work possible. Ideas for content and design came from among the employees of the American Printing House for the Blind and outside consultants.The atlas could not have been completed within the ten month schedule without the help of all these people. This work has been designed from its inception as an atlas in braille. It is not a copy of any existing print atlas but is a new atlas for braille readers that is up-to-date as of August 1992. You will find a new page structure design within the book that should be helpful in reading the contents. Each map has a descriptive page or pages preceding it. The descriptive pages are on shorter sheets than the maps, which enables you to read the maps without having to flip to the previous page. The maps are organized in a descending order structure. The first map is of the Solar System. This is followed by a series of Earth maps, including: Polar Views; Climates; Mountain Ranges; and Population Distribution. Continents are then shown divided into counties. We hope you enjoy reading the atlas and find it helpful. THE SOLAR SYSTEM The Earth is one of nine planets in our solar system. In this diagram they are shown in the order they are located from the sun. The sizes of and distances between the planets are not to scale. For example, the sun's diameter is equal to 108 times that of the earth. The diameter of Jupiter is ten times that of the earth. In its position as the third planet from the sun, the earth is the only planet with water and an atmosphere that will support human life. PLATE 1 The Solar System THE EARTH AT THE SUMMER AND WINTER SOLSTICE The first day of summer in the Northern Hemisphere occurs when the most direct or vertical rays of the sun strike the Tropic of Cancer. This is usually June 21. At that time the Norther Hemisphere receives as much as three times the amount of solar energy as the Southern Hemisphere. The Earth has two basic motions. It rotates on its axis. This motion distributes solar energy around the entire planet every 24 hours. It also revolves around the sun in an orbit almost 600 million miles long. We hurtle through solar space at an average speed of 67,000 miles per hour. As it revolves, its axis continues to rotate to the same position in the universe, the North Star. In the diagram, the axis of the earth in the two positions in its orbit is parallel to itself. It is also inclined 23.5 degrees from being perpendicular to the plane of its orbit. These three factors, rotation, revolution and an inclined axis, cause the vertical rays of the sun to move back and forth between Tropic of Cancer and Capricorn. The first day of winter occurs when the vertical rays are on the Tropic of Capricorn. This is usually on December 21, the vertical rays are moving northward. They reach the equator on March 21, the first day of spring. or Vernal Equinox. Continuing north the rays reach the Tropic of Cancer on June 21. By September 21, they are on the equator again on their way south to the Tropic of Capricorn which they reach by December 21. PLATE 2 The Earth at the Summer and Winter Solstice WORLD MAP WITH CONTINENTS AND OCEANS IDENTIFIED The six continents and four major oceans are shown on this map. Greenland, the world's largest island, is also shown. Eur-Asia is the largest of the continents. It has an area of 21,200,000 square miles, which is 36% of all the land surface on the planet. Australia with 2,966,155 square miles is the smallest continent. Table one gives the names and area of all the continents. TABLE ONE CONTINENTS AND THEIR AREAS Continent is followed by Area in square miles. AFRICA 11,700,000 ANTARCTICA 5,400,000 ASIA 17,400,000 AUSTRALIA 2,966,155 EUR-ASIA 21,200,000 EUROPE 3,800,000 NORTH AMERICA 9,400,000 SOUTH AMERICA 6,900,000. Sometimes Europe is referred to as a continent but technically it is not. It is a peninsula, a body of land surrounded on three sides by water, of Asia. The peninsula of Europe is made up of several smaller peninsulas. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the four great oceans. With an area of 63,800,000 square miles, it covers 32% of the world's surface. Altogether, water covers approximately 75% of the earth. Table Two gives the names and areas of the four oceans. TABLE TWO OCEANS AND THEIR AREAS (in square miles) ARCTIC 5,400,000 ATLANTIC 31,800,000 INDIAN 28,900,000 PACIFIC 63,800,000 PLATE 3 World Map with Continents and Oceans Identified THE WORLD WITH LINES OF LATITUDE AND LONGITUDE The geographic grid is a system of East-West and North-South lines on globes and maps. This grid is used to determine the absolute location of any point on Earth. The East-West lines are called Parallels. They are used to measure latitude or distance North of or South of the equator in degrees. The equator is zero degrees. The maximum value of latitude is 90 degrees North or South at the poles. Every point of Earth lies on a parallel. The North-South lines are Meridians. They extend from the North Pole to the South Pole. On a globe, the meridians converge to a point at the poles. Meridians are used to measure longitude or distance east or west of the Prime Meridian in degrees. The Prime Meridian was chosen by international convention in 1884. It runs through the Royal Observatory in Greenwich England. The Prime Meridian is zero degrees. The maximum value of longitude is 180 degrees, the meridian which is half way around the earth from the Prime Meridian. This 180 meridian is also known as the International Dateline, the line where days begin and end. Every point on Earth lies on a meridian. The absolute location of any point on Earth can be identified by the intersection of the parallel and meridian it is on. For convenience and so the map won't be cluttered, only some parallels and meridians are shown on maps. On this map, parallels are spaced 25 degrees apart except for 75 and 90 degree parallels north and south. The meridians are spaced 30 degrees apart. Notice that the zero degrees latitude and zero degrees longitude point is just off the west coast of Africa in the Gulf of Guinea. PLATE 4 The World with Lines of Latitude and Longitude THE WORLD CENTERED ON THE PACIFIC OCEAN Key: (blank paper indicates water Most maps of the world used in the United States are centered on North America. We are familiar with looking at the world from that perspective. Here is a map of the world centered on the Pacific Ocean. Three-fourths of Planet Earth is covered with water. The Pacific Ocean is the largest single body of water. At its widest point, it is about 12,000 miles wide. The Pacific has a surface area of 64,186,300 square miles. It is 20 times larger than the United States. It has an average depth of 12,925 feet or more than two miles. The rim of the Pacific is a zone of volcanoes and earthquakes. They occur because the floor of the Pacific, one of several plates that make up the crust of the earth, is moving northwest. As it does it scrapes and grinds against the continents around the rim. The countries along the rim of the Pacific are developing into one of the most important economic regions on Earth. The west coast of North America is already oriented toward trade with Asia. Notice the distortion of the shape of the land masses at the eastern and western margins of the map. Compare their shapes with those on the world map centered on North America. PLATE 5 THE WORLD CENTERED ON THE PACIFIC OCEAN MAP OF THE WORLD WITH THE INTERNATIONAL DATELINE The International Dateline is where each new day begins. The dateline mostly corresponds to the 180 degree meridian to ensure that an entire country is on one side of the line. The calendar date changes when you cross the dateline. The only time this is not true is when the Prime Meridian is directly beneath the noon sun. At that time, it would be in the same day over the entire earth for an instant. But since the earth rotates from west to east the dateline swings through midnight and the next calendar day begins. On this map the dateline is at the 1:00 P.M. position. Therefore, it is 1:00 A.M. on the Prime Meridian. If it is Monday to the east of the dateline, it is Tuesday to the west of the dateline. The rule is: when traveling east you add hours and when you cross the dateline you subtract one calendar day. For example find the number 1 along the equator to go west of the dateline. It is 11:00 A.M. Tuesday. At the 2 it is 12:00 noon, Tuesday. Continue east and cross the dateline where it is 1:00 p.M.at 3 it is 2:00 P.M. Monday and at 4 it is 3:00 P.M. Monday. When traveling west the rule is the opposite: you subtract hours and when you cross the dateline you add one calendar day. PLATE 6 MAP OF THE WORLD WITH THE INTERNATIONAL DATELINE POLAR PROJECTIONS OF THE WORLD These two maps are Polar Projections of the world. One is drawn as though you are looking "down" on the North Pole and the other as though you are looking "down" on the South Pole. Remember that down means toward the center of the earth. Notice that the meridians of longitude are like spokes of a wheel. Parallels of latitude are concentric circles or circles that fit inside each other. The last parallel outside from the center of the map is the equator. These views of the earth show that: 1 Most of the land masses of the earth are in the Northern Hemisphere 2 The Southern Hemisphere is almost all water 3 Only two continents, Australia and Antarctica, are entirely within the Southern Hemisphere 4 Antarctica is centered on the South Pole. Polar Projections provide us a view of the earth like no other flat maps can. PLATE 7 POLAR PROJECTIONS OF THE WORLD POLAR PROJECTION OF NORTHERN HEMISPHERE WITH SELECTED CITIES Most of the world's land masses, about 75%, are located in the Northern Hemisphere. Therefore, most of the people of the world and their cities are also in this hemisphere. This map indicates the location of seventeen cities. Showing cities on a polar projection can help us understand that places we think are far apart are not really so far apart. It is a relatively short distance from North America to Asia if you travel over the North Pole area. This map also helps us to understand why airplane flights from Washington, DC at point A and Tokyo Japan at point H pass over and sometimes land and refuel, in Fairbanks, Alaska at point N. To fly along a parallel of latitude between Washington and Tokyo would be the long way. The shortest distance between two points on the earth is along the line of a great circle. A great circle is the largest circle that can be drawn on a sphere. The equator, for example, is a great circle. Great circles can be drawn in any direction. A polar projection gives some idea of what the great circle route between two cities would be. For example, if you were flying from New York City at point B to Cairo, Egypt at point O what cities in Europe would you fly close to? The answer is, London England at point D and Paris, France at point E. KEY: A Washington, DC J Calcutta, India B New York City, New York K Bombay, India C Los Angeles, California L Bangkok, Thailand D London, England M Mexico City, Mexico E Paris, France N Fairbanks, Alaska F Bonn, Germany O Cairo, Egypt G Moscow, Russia P Tehran, Iran H, Tokyo, Japan Q Lagos, Nigeria I Beijing, People's Republic of China PLATE 8 POLAR PROJECTION OF NORTHERN HEMISPHERE WITH SELECTED CITIES WORLD MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS KEY: a series of upward pointing print letter "v" symbols indicating mountains Mountain areas generally have small human populations. Technically, a mountain is defined as a landform in which most of the land is sloped, the slopes are steep and there is 2,000 of local relief. Relief refers to a difference in elevation. It is difficult to farm steep slopes, mountain soils tend to be thin and stony, lower temperatures at higher elevations shorten the growing season, travel is difficult, and there are hazards such as landslides and avalanches which threaten human communities. Nevertheless, people have adapted to these conditions and live successfully in some mountain areas. There are famous tourist resorts on some mountains. Vacationers enjoy the cool temperatures in summer and snow sports in winter. The major mountain formations of the world are shown on this map. Some of the highest and most rugged mountains are found along the western side of North and South America, Southern Asia and Antarctica. PLATE 9 WORLD MOUNTAIN SYSTEMS WORLD CLIMATE Climate is one of the most important factors in our environment. It influences where and how we live, what we eat, how we dress and our kind of shelter. The daily weather, which is what makes up climate, sometimes influences how we feel and behave. Usually, rainy, cloudy, humid weather makes us feel depressed, gloomy and irritable. This map shows the distribution of world climates. Five main categories of climate according to Koeppen's classification system have been used. The A climates are the tropical or frost free climates. These climates are close to the equator and are warm all year. This climate also has abundant rainfall. The rainfall becomes more concentrated in the summer months the farther the location is from the equator. Generally, few people live in A climate areas, but there are exceptions such as Southeast Asia. The B climates are the dry climates. These areas are too far away from the equator to share the heavy rainfall that occurs in the A climate areas. The B climates are too far away from the C climate areas which are also rainy or humid. Some B climate areas such as the western United Stated States, are dry because they are too far inland to get moisture from the ocean or because mountains along the coast block moisture-bearing winds from the ocean. Few people live in B climate areas. C climate areas are known as the Humid-Subtropics. Located just outside of the tropics, these climates are neither too hot nor too cold and have sufficient rainfall for most human activities. The D climates are called Continental Climates because they get their characteristics from the way large land masses heat and cool. D climates are warm to hot in summer and cold in then winter. They have a large annual range in temperature or difference between the average temperature of the warmest and coldest months. Most people on Earth live in C climates and the warmer parts of the D climate areas. E or sub-polar and polar climates are found in the northern and southern extremes of the planet and on the tops of very high mountains. These are cold to bitterly cold and are as dry as desert areas. Few people live in even the warmest of the E climate areas. KEY: From top to bottom, symbols are in this order: tropical wet; desert; sub-tropical wet; polar dry; Mediterranean (similar to sub-tropical climate but dryer) PLATE 10 WORLD CLIMATE WORLD POPULATION CENTERS The population of the earth is approximately 5 and one-half billion. For centuries population grew slowly. Improvements in medical technology in sanitation in the 18th and 19th centuries lowered the death rate dramatically. About 1800, world population began to grow rapidly; and has increased from about one-half billion to its present level in just 200 years. The dramatic increase is shown on the graph below. TRANSCRIBER'S NOTE: There is a graph showing years from 4,000 BC to 2,000 AD horizontally, and billions of people on the vertical axis End of note.. People have been selective about where they live on the planet. They have generally avoided those areas that are too wet, too dry, too cold, too hot, too high, too infertile and too steep and stony. All the best places, or those places where it is relatively easy to live, are occupied. Some dry areas have been made habitable through irrigation. Some steep areas are used for agriculture by terracing the land; wide "steps", or terraces are cut in the side of steep slopes and crops are planted on the flat area. Infertile soil in some areas are made fertile by applying natural and artificial fertilizers. But large areas of the planet are virtually empty. Four major population centers have developed on Earth. These are not the only places people live, they are simply the areas where really large numbers of people can be found. The following table gives the name and approximate population of each center. WORLD POPULATION CENTERS The name of the center is followed by its population. East Asia, 1,462,970,000 Europe/Western Russia, 833,180,000 North America, 370,000,000 South Asia, 1,062,020,000 PLATE 11 WORLD POPULATION CENTERS NORTH AMERICA Although North America technically consists of all countries north of the Equator, the name is being used here to designate the United States and Canada. It might be more accurate to call the region Anglo-America; this name reflects the influence of England on the formation of the two countries including their language and systems of government. This region is large in area 7,528,919 square miles. Canada is the second-largest country on Earth, and the United States ranks fourth. The two countries share major landforms. In the east, the Appalachian Mountains extend from Northern Alabama to Quebec and Newfoundland in Eastern Canada. In the west, the Rocky Mountains stretch from the border of Mexico in the south through Alaska in the north. Between these two mountain systems is an area of lowlands that stretches from the coast of the Gulf of Mexico to the coast of the Arctic Ocean. Three huge river systems drain the region: The Mississippi River, which cuts through the central United States and flows south into the Gulf of Mexico; the MacKenzie River, which drains northwestern Canada and flows into the Arctic Ocean; and the Saint lawrence River, which flows northeast, forms part of the border between the United States and Canada and empties into the Atlantic Ocean. Abundant mineral resources and progressive governmental systems have helped the two countries achieve a high level of economic development. They are among the wealthiest nations on Earth. Both societies are characterized by high levels of consumption and have the potential to do great environmental damage. North America is the world's most productive region and exports more than any other. Less than 3% of the population is needed to raise its food. Productivity is so high, the region usually has large surpluses of basic food grains such as corn and wheat.The United States and Canada are each other's largest trading partners. Greenland, the largest island on earth, is considered to be part of North America by some geographers. Most of the island is covered with an icecap which is 5,000 feet thick in some places. A small human population lives along a narrow coastal fringe that is not covered by ice. PLATE 12 NORTH AMERICA CANADA KEY: Area enclosed in dotted boundary is Nunavut Territory 1 Yukon Territory 8 Ontario 2 Northwest Territory 9 Quebec 3 Nunavut Territory 10 Newfoundland 4 British Columbia 11 Nova Scotia 5 Alberta 12 New Brunswick 6 Saskatchewan 13 P E I 7 Manitoba A Hudson Bay Canada is the second largest country on Earth with 3,859,674 square miles of land area only Russia is larger. The Canadian population is small, only 25,895,000 which is one tenth the population of the United States. With such large land area the population density is only 6.7 people per square mile. This is misleading because Canada's population is very unevenly distributed. Much of Canada has a cold, harsh climate. About 90% of the people of Canada live in a narrow 150 mile wide strip of area along the southern border with the United States. The United States and Canada are friendly. Their border is the longest unguarded political border in the world. Canada is made up of ten provinces and three territories. Prince Edward Island is the smallest province with an area of only 2,185 square miles. Quebec is the largest with 594,680 square miles. PLATE 13 CANADA REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES With an area of 3,679,245 square miles, the United States is the fifth largest nation on earth. The 50 states which make up its political area are divided into regions for study. A region is an area that has shared or common characteristics. The characteristics May be physical such as landforms or climate or they may be cultural such as ethnic makeup or economy. Although regions are sometimes based on stereotypes, regions are useful because they help us to understand an otherwise complex landscape. Look at the regions on this map. What comes to mind as you read the name of each one? The map of each one of these regions is shown on the following pages of this atlas. Please note that Alaska is not shown in its proper location or relative size. Refer to the map of North America to see its true location. It is the largest state in the United States. Hawaii is not in its true location or relative size either. These islands are 2,000 miles out in the Pacific Ocean from the southwest coast of the United States. The islands are small but when added together they have more area that our three smallest states. PLATE 14 REGIONS OF THE UNITED STATES THE NORTHEAST The states that make up the Northeast have the largest cluster of population in the United States. The area which includes Eastern Maryland and Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Eastern New York, Connecticut and Massachusetts is a super-city known as Megalopolis. It is an area where cities have grown together to form one great urban area. Approximately one-fourth of the population of the United States or 60 million people live here. In contrast, this region has some rural areas with small villages and sparse population. Vermont and New Hampshire are known for their picturesque villages where the entire adult population meets to discuss problems. Some areas of Northern Maine are uninhabited. Several of the largest cities in the United States are in this region including Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, and New York which is the largest city in the United States. PLATE 15 THE NORTHEAST THE SOUTHEAST The Southeast is one of the fastest growing regions in the United States. These states are part of the "sunbelt" or that area where winter is mild and there are many sunny days. Large numbers of retired people from the North have moved south to take advantage of the year-round recreational opportunities. This is especially true of Florida and the other coastal states whose miles of beautiful beaches attract people. The industries of the Southeast are growing too. Atlanta, Georgia has become the region's primary city. It is the hub or center or highway, railroad and airline routes. Population is a growing problem but generally industries are attracted to the Southeast by its clean air, abundant water and low cost labor. PLATE 16 THE SOUTHEAST THE MIDWEST This region makes up the agricultural heartland of the United States. Some of the Eastern-most states like Ohio, Michigan, Indiana and Illinois are also part of the manufacturing core which extends through the Northeast. But agriculture is the dominant activity throughout this region. The Midwest is part of the great lowlands located between the Appalachian Mountains to the east and the Rocky Mountains to the west. This flat to generally rolling land allows the use of large types of mechanical farm equipment which increases efficiency. The soils here are some of the most fertile and productive on Earth. There is usually sufficient rainfall although droughts reduce crop yields in some years. Three great agricultural regions are located in the Midwest. One is the cornbelt which stretches through Indiana, Iowa and parts of adjacent states. Corn dominates the landscape along with soybeans. Much of the corn is fed to beef cattle, hogs, chickens, and turkeys. A second agricultural is the wheat belt found in North and South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas and parts of adjacent states. A third agricultural region is the hay and dairy belt in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and parts of adjacent states. Summers are shorter, winters are longer and corn is cut for silage for dairy cows. Much of the cheese, butter, milk, and other dairy products produced in the United States come from this region. Several large cities are located in this region including Chicago, Detroit, and Cleveland. PLATE 17 THE MIDWEST THE SOUTHWEST Except for the eastern most area, this region is known for its heat and aridity. Every summer has extended periods in which temperatures exceed 100 degrees F. Some places in Arizona experience temperatures of 110 degrees F or more. The human population of much of this region is dependent upon air conditioning. Low rainfall amounts has led to dependence on water pumped from underground for everything from agriculture to filling swimming pools. Cities like Phoenix and Tucson have become sun-belt retirement centers where tens of thousands of elderly Americans have moved to enjoy the sunshine, blue skies, low humidity, and pleasant winters. This growing population has placed severe strains on water supplies. The region is known for its beef cattle, cotton, fruit and vegetable production. Texas is especially known for its oil but the region also produces minerals such as copper and uranium. Spanish influence is in evidence everywhere in the region especially with regard to housing styles. Native Americans have and continue to play a major role in the cultural diversity of the region. Add to these the influx of Anglo-Americans and the region has a distinctive three part culture. PLATE 18 THE SOUTHWEST MOUNTAIN STATES The Mountain States is the most rugged region in the United States. It is dominated by the Rocky Mountains, a young rugged mountain system with high, sharp peaks. In some areas, the plateau surfaces between the peaks is at an elevation of 9,000 feet. The peaks rise several thousand feet above these plateaus. Geographers refer to the area between the Rocky Mountains and the mountains along the Pacific coast as the Basin and Range Region. In other areas, deep narrow valleys are interspersed between the peaks. Because of the ruggedness, dryness and relative isolation of this region, population is low. Montana, the fourth largest state, has a population of less that one million which gives it a population density of less than six people per square mile. Alaska, the largest state, with a population of 558,000 has a population density of less than one person per square mile. Some spots of Idaho do not even have roads in areas the size of Rhode Island. Denver, Colorado is an important financial and transportation center in the middle of this sparsely populated region. Much of the land in these states is owned by the federal government and is, therefore, public land. The region has valuable mineral deposits and timber resources. There is considerable controversy over whether or not the government should lease these public lands to companies who want to mine the minerals and cut the timber. PLATE 19 MOUNTAIN STATES PACIFIC STATES Alaska, California, Hawaii, Oregon, and Washington constitute one of the most varied regions in the United States. Alaska has the highest mountain, is the coldest area, the least populated, and the most northern of all states. Surprisingly to most people, Alaska is also the most eastern state, because some of the islands cross 180 degrees. Hawaii is the wettest, the most western, and the most southern state. California is the most populous. Death Valley, California is the hottest spot and the lowest in elevation in the United States. The eastern areas of California, Oregon and Washington are in a rainshadow creating desert area requiring irrigation to raise crops. Moist air from the Pacific Ocean to the west cools and condenses as it rises over the mountains along the coast. The precipitation along the coast from Northern California to Washington is greater than anywhere in the 48 conterminous states. When air descends the eastern slopes of the mountains it warms and is dry. The rainshadow area becomes progressively dryer toward the south where hot dry desert occurs in Southeastern California. The southwest coast of California has one of the most pleasant climates on Earth. Summers are warm and dry with blue skies and sunshine. Winters are mild with some rainfall. This climate is one factor which has attracted large numbers of people to this area. The mountains in this region vary from place to place. Mount McKinley in Alaska is the highest elevation in North America, reaching 20,320 feet. Many of the mountains are volcanic with one even spewing ash in the summer of 1982. From Northern California to Washington the mountains are volcanic in origin. Many dormant volcanoes and at least one active one, Mt. Saint Helens which erupted in 1982, are found here. Farther south are mountains formed by a huge block of the earth's crust being thrust upward. Along the coast, mountains fringe the land and the crashing waves of the Pacific Ocean produce some of the most spectacular scenery in the United States. With almost 29 million people, California has the largest population of any state. More than 16 million of them live in just three cities, San Diego, Los Angeles and San Francisco. Portland Oregon and Seattle, Washington are also large cities. In contrast to these pockets of dense population, there are desert and mountain areas which are virtually uninhabited. Hawaii is the tropical paradise of the United States. Tourists flock to these volcanic islands to marvel at the beautiful peaks and scenery. PLATE 20 PACIFIC STATES MIDDLE AMERICA This region consists of all the countries and Caribbean islands between the United States and South America. It can be subdivided into three smaller regions, Mexico, Central American and Caribbean America. The region has severely felt the impact of European culture. Many of the native groups no longer exist having been killed in wars, by enslavement, or as victims of European diseases for which they had no immunity. Native populations were replaced with African slaves brought to the region to provide labor on European plantations. As a result, the current population is a mixture of all these ethnic groups and is made more variable because of intermarriage among the groups. The mainland part of the region is dominated by mountains. They form an almost continuous "backbone" from the border of the United States to South America. Some of the Caribbean islands are mountainous also and are the tops of volcanoes some of which are still active. Since the region is in the belt of winds called the northeast trades, the eastern sides of the islands and mainland countries are wetter than the western sides. This rainfall, in combination with the constantly warm tropical climate produces dense rainforest vegetation along the coast and eastern slopes of the mountains. The entire region is economically poor and is considered part of the "third world." There are local exceptions and some countries, like Mexico with its rich deposits of oil, have the potential to be wealthy. Tourism is a major industry throughout the region especially in the islands, since it is close to the large and more affluent population of Anglo-North America, or the United States and Canada. The region provides a welcome opportunity to escape the cold of winter and also provides unique recreational opportunities such as snorkeling and scuba diving. The region is also extremely popular with warm water sailing enthusiasts. PLATE 21 MIDDLE AMERICA MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA Mexico is the largest country in the mainland part of Middle America. It dominates the region in every way, especially economically. Approximately 60% of Mexico's 85 million people are Mestizo or a mixture of European and Indian people. About 29% are pure blooded native people. Many speak a native language. Think of the country as a giant letter V. The two arms of the V are the eastern and western Cordilleras or mountains. Between these two mountain ranges is a plateau and the southern end of the V is Mexico City, the capital and soon to be largest city on Earth. It is expected to have between 40 and 50 million early in the next century. The site of the city was also the site of the center of the Aztec civilization. Mexico continues to be a major producer of silver. But oil is the most important mineral resource. Many factories have been built close to the United States border by American companies. Opportunities for jobs are still low for many Mexicans. Millions have crossed the border into the United States to seek employment. South of Mexico is what physical geographers call a land bridge. It is a narrow isthmus connecting North and South America. Seven countries occupy this area. All are small with relatively small populations. Many of the people live in the highlands to escape the heat and humidity of the tropical coast. One country, El Salvador, is located on the western side of the isthmus and has no Caribbean coast. These countries are generally poor with high rates of illiteracy and some have very unstable governments. An exception is Costa Rica, a mostly European culture nation. It has a highly education population and a progressive government. Rather than spend much of their national resources on military forces and equipment, like some of their neighbors, Costa Rica has no national military. They are often leaders in programs to protect their rainforests. In Panama, a canal connects the Atlantic and Pacific oceans and greatly reduces the length of the sea voyage from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean. The canal is somewhat obsolete since newer larger ships are too large to fit through the several sets of locks necessary to raise and lower the ships as they cross the isthmus. PLATE 22 MEXICO AND CENTRAL AMERICA CARIBBEAN ISLANDS The islands of the Caribbean appear to be paradises. The climate is constantly warm, the trade winds provide relief from the heat and make for great sailing, and beautiful beaches rimmed with tall palm trees invite people to enjoy a host of water oriented leisure activities. But the scene is deceptive. These island countries have a dense and poor population. There are exceptions but generally, tourism is a major industry. The benefits of this industry reaches only a small number of the local people. Most of the large resorts are owned by foreigners and the profits leave the islands. The tourists with their disposable incomes and obvious lavish lifestyles are in strong contrast to the intense poverty of most of the people. Cuba is the largest of the islands and is the only Communist country in the region. Economic conditions under the system of a planned economy has created a reasonable standard of living. Economic conditions in Haiti however, are deplorable. Many Haitians have been trying to flee the country and come to the United States. The shining star of the islands is Puerto Rico which enjoys the status of being a commonwealth of the United States. Many American corporations have manufacturing plants there and the standard of living is high compared to the rest of the islands. Many Puerto Ricans are in favor of becoming a state of the United States. Because of the many African slaves brought to the islands, African culture strongly influences their character. The Netherlands, France, Great Britain and the United States are among the European countries that have island possessions in the region. PLATE 23 CARIBBEAN ISLANDS SOUTH AMERICA The continent is dominated by two massive landform features, the Amazon Basin with the Amazon River and its many large tributaries and the Andes Mountains which stretch from Northern Columbia to the southern tip of the continent. These mountains are one of the most impassable mountain barriers anywhere. South America has a global location which could be considered to be unusual. Surprisingly, it is not south of North America but is southeast. Its western most point is as far east as the southern tip of Florida in the United States. It is much closer to Africa and Southern Europe than is the United States. Most of its global interaction is with Europe and the United States. It is much farther away from Australia and Asia than is the United States and therefore has little contact with what is promising to be the most important economic region on Earth. Thirteen countries occupy this land mass. All are independent except for French Guiana which is a Department of France. Some like Peru and Bolivia are considered third world countries which means they are poor and struggling to develop their economies. Others like Argentina and Brazil are considered emerging countries. They are at a point in their economic development where they have broken out of the cycle of poverty and are competing with the other developed countries of the world. The continent has a peripheral population distribution. Most of the people live in large cities strung along the coast or periphery of the continent. These cities are growing very rapidly as poor people from rural areas migrate to the cities in search of greater economic opportunity. As a result, behind the beautiful beach Ipanema in Rio De Janeiro are found some of the world's worst slums. Brazil is the largest country in South America and is the fifth largest country on Earth. It is just slightly smaller than the United States. Its population is growing rapidly and is expected to be larger than the population of the United States by the year 2000. Known for its coffee production, it also has many modern industries. It has been in the news constantly in recent years because of the rapid rate at which its tropical rainforest is being destroyed. The land is being cleared for agricultural uses, especially for grazing beef cattle. The Amazon River is a major transportation artery and is navigable all the way to the foot hills of the Andes Mountains in the west. One of the most unusual shaped countries is Chile. Located along the southwest coast, this long narrow country stretches all the way from 17 degrees south latitude to 55 degrees south latitude. Geographers consider a country with a shape like this difficult to administer. PLATE 24 SOUTH AMERICA EUROPE Located on the western end of the Eur-Asian continent, Europe is a peninsula made up of several smaller peninsulas. Norway and Sweden make up the Scandinavian Peninsula. Denmark and part of Germany occupy the Danish Peninsula. Spain and Portugal make up the Iberian Peninsula. Italy is a peninsula in the shape of a boot. The countries of Southeast Europe occupy the Balkan Peninsula. This gives Europe an extremely long coast line for its size and put every part of the region close to the sea. This in combination with the fact that Europe is in the center of the land masses of the planet helps explain why European influence has reached out around the world. Europe is one of the four major concentrations of human population. A population almost that of the United States lives in an area about half the size. More than thirty countries and several principalities, or mini-countries that exist through some special arrangement with larger countries, are located here. Europeans are well educated, have a high standard of living, are leaders in creating new technology, are leaders in the world of clothing fashions, perfumes, optical goods, automobiles, transportation and a host of other areas of human endeavor. Although it has a northerly location, the region is made habitable by the westerly winds which blow across the relatively warm waters which have broken away from the Gulf Stream, a huge current of warm water circulating clockwise in the Atlantic Ocean. Southern Europe is even warmer being protected from the cold air of winter to the north by the Alps Mountains which stretch east-west across Europe. The Mediterranean area is famous for its long, hot, sunny, dry summers and mild rainy winters. The Alps are high enough to be snow covered most of the year. Ski resorts are everywhere! Economic conditions vary from place to place. In general, development, standard of living, and other measures of economic vitality decrease as you go from northwest to southeast in Europe. The poorest countries of Europe are Albania, Greece, Bulgaria and the former Yugoslavia. Some of the countries of Europe are about to merge into the European Community, a single economic market. KEY: Short vertical lines indicates disputed boundary Sets of dots, Russia 1 Iceland 15 Sweden 2 Ireland 16 Finland 3 United Kingdom 17 Estonia 4 Portugal 18 Latvia 5 Spain 19 Lithuania 6 France 20 Poland 7 Luxembourg 21 Czechoslovakia 8 Belgium 22 Hungary 9 Netherlands 23 Austria 10 Denmark 24 Yugoslavia 11 Germany 25 Romania 12 Switzerland 26 Bulgaria 13 Italy 27 Albania 14 Norway 28 Greece PLATE 25 EUROPE THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES The Soviet Union no longer exists. It has disintegrated into fifteen independent nations and some of these are in the process of splitting into even smaller ones. The largest of the Socialist Republics is Russia. It alone is still the largest nation in the world. Around the fringe of Russia are fourteen former republics which are now independent. The first three to break away were Latvia, Lithuania and Estonia. The entire region can still be referred to as the Russian Realm because of its influence in the region. The region has a population of almost 288 million people and slightly more than one-half are in Russia. Population is very unevenly distributed. Most people live in a large triangle toward the western end of the region. As you go east, the triangle gets narrower and narrower. This area is referred to as the Slavic Coreland or agricultural wedge. It has a climate similar to that of Wisconsin and Michigan in the United States. The southwestern part of this triangle is the Ukraine. It is the premier wheat growing area of the region and was known as the "bread basket" of the Soviet Union. It is now an independent country. Because of its northern location and large continental size which cools rapidly when winter comes, winters in much of the realm are long and bitterly cold. About 47% of the region has a condition known as permafrost or permanently frozen soil. The eastern area of Russia is Siberia, a word that almost miserable winters. Verkoyansk, a city located there, has a July average temperature of about 58 degrees. The January average temperature is 50 degrees below zero!! Desert covers a large area of the south central part of the region and the southern fringe is rimmed with high rugged mountains. Except for the extreme west, the whole region slopes toward the north and the huge rivers which flow that way are frozen for much of the year. Another handicap is the lack of warm water ports. Virtually every port of the region is frozen for part of the year or they are hemmed in by other countries. KEY: Short vertical lines indicate newly independent states 1 Estonia 9 Azerbaijan 2 Latvia 10 Turkmen 3 Lithuania 11 Kazakhstan 4 Belorussia 12 Uzbekistan 5 Ukraine 13 Tajikistan 6 Moldavia 14 Kirghizstan 7 Georgia 15 Russia 8 Armenia PLATE 26 THE COMMONWEALTH OF INDEPENDENT STATES AFRICA Africa is the second largest continent. It is believed to be the center of the land mass of which all the other continents were once a part. They gradually broke away and drifted to their present positions. They are still in the process of moving, and Africa is still in the process of breaking apart. The eastern part of the continent has a series of long narrow lakes which formed in the valley created by the pulling apart of the continent. The continent has some unusual characteristics. For so large a land mass, it has a short coast line. There are few indentations and therefore few good ports. Much of the continent is a plateau with a narrow coastal plain. The plateau surface is made up of several large basins or depressions. Mountains are found in the northwest, southeast and southwest, in the east and scattered through the Sahara. The highest mountain, Mt. Kilimanjaro, is 19,340 feet high and is almost directly on the equator. Its snow capped upper slopes stand out in strong contrast to the tropical climate at its base. Since the equator runs through the middle of the continent, climate changes as you go north or south of that line. Along the equator is an area of tropical rainforest which constantly warm temperatures and heavy precipitation. North and south of this is tropical savanna where tall grasses with some trees predominates. Farther south and north the grasses get shorter in the steppe climate until they disappear altogether in the desert. The Sahara in Northern Africa is as large as the United States and is growing larger. In Southern Africa, the Kalahari Desert is much smaller. South and north of the desert the climate wet once again. Africa has approximately 600 million people. Its population has doubled in the past 30 years and will double again in the next 30. It is a continent known for its under-development, lack of protein, low literacy, high death rates and low life expectancy. The current epidemic of AIDS holds the specter of death over millions of Africans. KEY: 1 Djibouti 26 Cameroon 2 Sudan 27 Central African Republic 3 Ethiopia 28 Nigeria 4 Somalia 29 Benin 5 Kenya 30 Togo 6 Uganda 31 Ghana 7 Tanzania 32 Ivory Coast 8 malawi 33 Liberia 9 Mozambique 34 Sierra Leone 10 Madagascar 35 Guinea 11 Rwanda 36 Guinea-Bissau 12 Burundi 37 Gambia 13 Zaire 38 Senegal 14 Zambia 39 Mali 15 Zimbabwe 40 Burkina Faso 16 Swaziland 41 Niger 17 Lesotho 42 Chad 18 South Africa 43 Western Sahara 19 Botswana 44 Mauritania 20 Namibia 45 Morocco 21 Angola 46 Algeria 22 Cabinda 47 Tunisia 23 Congo 48 Libya 24 Gabon 49 Egypt 25 Equatorial Guinea PLATE 27 AFRICA NORTHERN AFRICA This region is dominated by the Sahara, one of the largest deserts on Earth. Millions of square miles receive less than ten inches of rainfall a year. Much of the Sahara is uninhabited. the scarcity of water limits the size and extent of human communities. Egypt, with more than 50 million people, is an exception. the Nile River, which flows north through Eastern Egypt, is the life blood of the country; almost the entire population lives within two or three miles of either bank of the river. Water from the Nile is used to raise crops to support this narrow ribbon of population. In other places in the desert, spring or well water helps create oases or small areas supporting trees, agriculture and a human community. The southern margin of the desert is semi-arid. It has a steppe type of climate with enough rainfall for short grasses to grow. Nomadic people move themselves and their herds of sheep and goats frequently to new grazing areas. There are also narrow areas of steppe climate along the northwest margin of the desert and the northeastern tip of Libya. The Atlas Mountains in the northwestern margin of the continent add some climate variety due to their elevation. And there is a narrow area of Mediterranean climate on the northern side of the mountains and along the coast of the Mediterranean Sea as far west as Tunisia. With twenty inches of rainfall or more, this area supports a much greater population than does the steppes. Many of the people of Northern Africa are Arab and almost all are Moslems, or followers of the Prophet Mohammed. The Arab culture is one of the oldest on Earth. It has added much to our lives, including our system of numbers. An Egyptian was the first to accurately calculate the size of the earth. Many of the countries in this region are extremely poor and politically unstable. Libya is an exception to the poverty because of its oil deposits. PLATE 28 NORTHERN AFRICA SOUTHERN AFRICA This region of the world extends from the southern margin of the Sahara to the southern tip of the continent. It is distinctly different from the Moslem Northern Africa, and there is considerable diversity within this region. Some geographers recognize six sub-regions, each with its own physical and cultural characteristics. The sub-regions and the countries in them are listed in the table below. COUNTRIES OF THE SUB-REGIONS OF SOUTHERN AFRICA Note: In this table, the information is shown in the following order. Sub-region: countries. West Africa: Senegal, Gambia, Guinea Bissau, Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, Ivory Coast, Burkina Faso, Ghana, Togo, Benin, Nigeria. Equatorial Africa: Central African Republic, Cameroon, Equatorial Guinea, Congo, Zaire, Uganda, Gabon, Cabinda. East Africa: Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi. Southern Africa: Angola, Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Botswana, Swaziland, Lesotho, Malawi. South Africa: South Africa. Madagascar: Madagascar. The physical environment of this region varies from the tropical rainforests of the Congo Basin to the Kalahari Desert to the snow-capped peak of Mt. Kilimanjaro. The soils are general infertile throughout the region, yet most of the people (60%) are rural and make their living from agriculture. Southern Africa suffers from many chronic diseases. The newest plague is AIDS which, according to some predictions, will result in 20 million deaths in the coming decades. Population growth rates are the highest on Earth, despite high death rates and life expectancy as low as 50 years. Valuable minerals are found in scattered areas throughout the region, including oil, gold, copper, manganese and diamonds. These have led to considerable economic development and urbanization in some areas. KEY: 4 Somalia 22 Cabinda 5 Kenya 23 Congo 6 Uganda 24 Gabon 7 Tanzania 25 Equatorial Guinea 8 Malawi 26 Cameroon 9 Mozambique 27 Central African Republic 10 Madagascar 28 Nigeria 11 Rwanda 29 Benin 12 Burundi 30 Togo 13 Zaire 31 Ghana 14 Zambia 32 Ivory Coast 15 Zimbabwe 33 Liberia 16 Swaziland 34 Sierra Leone 17 Lesotho 35 Guinea 18 South Africa 36 Guinea Bissau 19 Botswana 37 Gambia 20 Namibia 38 Senegal 21 Angola 40 Burkina Faso PLATE 29 SOUTHERN AFRICA MIDDLE EAST This region is also referred to as Southwest Asia. The predominant physical characteristic is dryness; much of the region is desert. The Ar Rub al Khali, or Empty Quarter, is the southeastern area of Saudi Arabia is one of the most formidable deserts on Earth. There are some exceptions: the coastal area at the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea, the coastal fringe Turkey, and much of Iraq. Those areas have a Mediterranean type of climate with hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters. Northern Israel gets as much as 40 inches of rainfall each year. The Middle East is a major crossroads connecting Europe, Asia and Africa. Some of the oldest trade routes are located here. This crossroads function has put various cultures in contact with each other, which has promoted the exchange of goods and scientific, architectural and religious ideas. The Middle East is home to three of the world's major religions. Abraham, Moses, and David lived the events recorded in the Books of the Old Testament upon which the Jewish religion is based. Jesus of Nazareth established Christianity by his life and death, as recorded in the New Testament. Still later, the Prophet Mohammed in Saudi Arabia recorded his revelations in the Koran, the holy book of Islam. Jerusalem in Israel is an important city to all three religions. This region has been the scene of bloody struggles among Islamic countries and between Islamic countries and Israel. After almost 1900 years of non-existence as a nation, Israel was re-established by an act of the United Nations in 1948. This small nation has fought several wars for existence with its Islamic neighbors. Iran and Iraq fought an eight-year war over their differences. Russian troops occupied Afghanistan but withdrew after several years of military action against Afghan rebels; civil war continues there. In August 1990, Iraq invaded Kuwait and claimed it as its 19th province. It took a massive international military action to drive the Iraquis out. The region remains politically and militarily volatile. This is critical to many other countries, not only because of the potential for global war but also because the region contains some of the largest oil reserves on Earth. Many counties, including the United States and Japan, are dependent on oil production from this region. KEY: Diagonals upper left to lower right, Israeli Occupied Territory 1 Turkey 9 Oman 2 Syria 10 United Arab Emirates 3 Lebanon 11 Qatar 4 Israel 12 Iran 5 Jordan 13 Iraq 6 Saudi Arabia 14 Kuwait 7 Yemen 15 Sinai Peninsula (Egypt) 8 People's Democratic Republic of Yemen 16 Afghanistan PLATE 30 MIDDLE EAST ASIA Asia is the largest region on Earth. Stretching almost halfway around the globe longitudinally and from the equator to more than 80 degrees north, Asia has an area of 17,400,000 square miles. It also has two of the planet's four largest population clusters, South Asia and East Asia. With more than 3 billion people, it has a greater population than any other region: three of every five people on Earth live in Asia. Asia also contains the largest single country, Russia. Asia has the tallest mountains on Earth. Mt. Everest is 29,028 feet high. Asia has every climate type from tropical rainforest to polar. It holds the rainfall record for the planet: Cherrapunji, India received 1,042 inches of rainfall in 1861 366 inches in the month of June alone. One of the largest annual ranges of temperature, 100 degrees has been recorded around the city of Verkhoyansk. Asia also is home to one of the oldest civilizations on Earth, China. With more than one billion people, China is more populous than any other country. Asia is a continent of great diversity with many countries and even more ethnic groups. It contains great mineral wealth, including some of the world's largest deposits of oil, coal, gold and gem stones. Some Asian countries are highly developed and wealthy. In others, people exist in desperate, life-threatening poverty. PLATE 31 ASIA SOUTH ASIA This region is another of the world's great population clusters. India alone, the largest country in the area, has a population of approximately 895 million people. That is more than three times the population in an area less than one half the size of the United States. The entire region is known for its severe poverty and under development. Yet the population continues to grow at a rapid rate which will put an even greater strain on the resources of the physical environment. This region is effectively isolated from the rest of Eur-Asia by high mountains which surround it. The highest peak on Earth, Mt. Everest, is in Nepal and is 29,028 feet tall. Although they are a barrier to movement, the mountains are the source of the life giving water which flows in the rivers. Some comes from melting snow and more comes from the heavy rains which fall on their slopes as the warm moist air from the ocean rises and cools. This region depends on a natural phenomenon known as the monsoon which means seasonal change in wind. During the winter, wind blows from off the Asian continent toward the ocean. This air is dry and so are the winters in South Asia. But in summer, the air shifts and comes from off the ocean and flows toward the continent greatly increasing the chance of rain. If the wet summer monsoon is late or ends too soon crop production decreases and there is famine. Bangladesh is a good example of a country which is in a desperate situation and is often referred to as an economic "basket case." Small in area with a population of about 20 million people, it cannot feed itself. It is visited by disasters of monumental proportions on occasion. Since the country is mostly a delta, an area which is barely above sea level near the mouth of a river, it is inundated by the sea when a typhoon or hurricane, comes ashore. In 1970, a typhoon and its storm surge, the wall of water which builds in advance of a typhoon, washed ashore. It killed 300 thousand people. PLATE 32 SOUTH ASIA SOUTHEAST ASIA The physical geography of this region is complex. It is made up of many islands and peninsulas make up the mainealand. Some of the islands are flat while many have a mountainous interior. The mainland is characterized by mountain ranges which enclose the valleys and deltas of the major rivers. This landform pattern helps determine the distribution of population. In this region people are clustered along the coasts and in the valleys and deltas where the soils are fertile. Except of a small area of Northern Myannar the entire region lies between the Tropic of Cancer and the equator. The climate is warm the year round and there is plenty of rainfall. Some of the mountains are high enough to add climatic diversity to the region. Generally, as you go up in altitude, the temperatures decrease and precipitation increases. The ocean is present everywhere. No part of the region is very far from the sound of the surf. Southeast Asia is part of what promises to be the most important economic region on Earth, the Pacific Rim. The region has a long history of involvement with the rest of the world. It served as the route for explorers, traders and fortune seekers. It was the migration route for mainland ps to move into the island groups of the Pacific. Various European and Asian nations have had political control of parts of the region. The only country which was never subjugated by a European power is Thailand. The entire region has a reputation for political instability. The United States became involved in one of its longest and most frustrating military actions in it history in this region. Communists had tried to gain control of what was called French Indo-China which resulted in a division of Vietnam into north and South Vietnam. The United States took over the struggle from the French in 1960 to prevent the Communists from taking over South Vietnam. After 15 years of war and the loss of 50,000 American men and women in the armed forces, the United States and the South Vietnamese government were driven out. The country is now reunited as Communist Vietnam. Interestingly, the country is now beginning to adopt western capitalistic economic ideas. The human carrying capacity of the land or what geographers call physiologic density, is relatively low in this region. Usually, tropical regions have poor soils and other problems which keep large numbers of people from living there. However, soils in river valleys are usually fertile and soils which develop from volcanic rock are also fertile. The island of Java in Indonesia is a good example. Fertile volcanic soils in combination with a year round growing season and plenty of rainfall support a large and dense human community. PLATE 33 SOUTHEAST ASIA EAST ASIA East Asia is another of the great population clusters on Earth. China has more than one billion people. One of every five people on this planet is Chinese. Although China is the third largest country, population density is 294 per square mile. But in reality, population is unevenly distributed and is crowded near the coast. China is approximately the same size and has the same latitudinal position as the United States. But China's population is four times that of the United States. Most people still live in small villages in the rural area landscape. CHINA is modernizing its economy. Manufacturing is increasing and some foreign business have been committed to build factories there. But it still takes approximately 60% of the population to produce all the food the country needs. Once a land where famines were common, it is a credit to central planning that none have occurred in recent years.. In strong contrast to China's large size and population is Japan, about the size of the state of California, Japan has a population of approximately 100 million people or four times the population of California. With the aid of the United States which defeated Japan in the second world war, the country has become an industrial leader. This is true despite the fact that the country has little in the way of natural resources. It must import all its oil and many of the minerals and other materials used in industry. But it has become world-famous for the quality of automobiles, electronic equipment, cameras and other manufactured products. Japan is mountainous. The population is crowded onto small areas of coastal plain. Cities are crowded houses are crammed together. Japanese have a high standard of living and are able to afford the pleasure of owning the products they produce. Much of their success is due to their work ethic. Japanese work long and hard. Workers and the companies they work for have a special relationship not found in much of the rest of the developed ow. Workers are extremely loyal to the goals of their companies in exchange for guaranteed life-long employment. Japan thrives on international trade. The entire region, included Taiwan, North and South Korea, which may unite in the near future and Have Kong, the British crown colony are active players in the Pacific Rim economic sphere. Trade between this region and the United States and Canada is already greater than the trade with the European community the traditional trading partner. PLATE 34 EAST ASIA AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND If there is an "end" to the earth, Australia and New Zealand are located there. The next time you look at the globe, turn it so all the land masses are in one hemisphere. Europe is in the center of the land hemisphere and Australia and New Zealand are on the outer rim. But these two countries are modern, developed and are outposts of European culture. Australia is the smallest continent on Earth and is approximately the size of the United States. It has a small population for its size, only 17 million or considerably less than one tenth of the United States population. Most of these people live in the southeastern part of the country which has a climate similar to the rainy and mild west coast marine climate of the Northwestern United states. To the north of this is a narrow strip of climate with long hot summers and short mild winters similar to the southeastern United States. The GREAT DIVIDING RANGE a short distance inland from the coast, separates this well watered part of the country from the interior which gets dryer and dryer to the west. A large area of the interior, or outbacks, is made up of the Great Victoria Desert. Between the desert and the mountains is an area that is suited for raising wheat and grazing cattle and sheep. Australia is famous for its wheat and wool exports but also exports other agricultural products such as apples, flowers and seafood product. Australia is unique in many ways. Since the continent was separated from the rest of the world's land masses for so long, it has many animals, like the duck billed platypus and the kangaroo, not found anywhere else. The Australian greeting, "g'day," is world famous. New Zealand is a small country, about the size of the state of Colorado, with a population of approximately 3,500,000. The country is made up of two major islands, North and South Island. Both are mountainous but South Island is especially rugged. The southern end of South Island is snow covered in the winter and is a ski resort area. Most of the country has the marine west coast type of climate which is great for the growth of grass, one of New Zealand's major industries is sheep grazing and wool production. PLATE 35 AUSTRALIA AND NEW ZEALAND PACIFIC CULTURAL REGIONS Geomorphologists, scientists who study the process by which the earth has come to be formed the way it is, believe the Pacific Ocean has always existed. Unlike the Atlantic Ocean which has opened and closed as the land masses spread apart and closed again, the Pacific has always been an open ocean. It is huge! It covers almost one third of the planet. In some places it is 12,000 miles wide! Scattered throughout this vast watery space are thousands of islands. Many are uninhabited but many have human communities on them. There is some controversy as to how humans came to occupy these islands. In some parts of the Pacific, like the southwest, they are relatively close together and it would be possible to travel from one to the other without losing sight of land. But in other areas of the ocean, the islands are separated by vast distances requiring many days of travel by means of the kinds of sailing vessels available in those days. While most theories suggest people moved eastward into the Pacific from the Asian mainland and the islands of Southeast Asia, some suggest that there was also migration from the west coast of South America. Three major culture regions have developed in the Pacific. Micronesia, or the small islands is located in the northwestern area of the Pacific Basin. These islands are mostly low lying atolls. Coral reefs would develop around a volcano. The volcano would collapse or sink into the ocean leaving behind the ring of coral which would eventually become sand covered and studded with palm trees and other plants. Guam is the largest island in this region and has an area of only 210 square miles. Many islands are only one square mile in size. Some of the islands have low mountains. South of Micronesia is Melanesia or the Dark Islands. This culture realm is not named for the physical appearance of the islands but of the people. They are much darker skinned and have darker hair than the people of either of the other two culture regions. Melanesia has the largest population of the three regions with 5,600,000 people. Polynesia or Many Islands is the largest of the three culture regions. It is shaped like a huge triangle with New Zealand in its southwest corner. Easter Island in its southeast corner and Hawaii in its northern corner. Many of these islands are the tops of volcanoes. Mauna Kea and Mauna Loa on the big island of Hawaii are almost 14,000 feet high. Other islands like Tahiti and the Marquesas have high mountains. The entire region generates thoughts of island paridises with sandy beaches and the sound of the wind rustling the fronds of the palm trees. PLATE 36 PACIFIC CULTURAL REGIONS ISLAND NATIONS OF THE PACIFIC The islands of the Pacific give the impression of paradise: ocean surf breaking gently on warm, sandy beaches, the rustling of palm fronds, and gentle breezes perfumed with the scent of plumeria blossoms. The Mesmerizing physical characteristics of the Pacific regions hide a variety of cultural problems. This region is immense, covering a huge portion of the earth. But the land area is among the smallest, and most of the island nations are tiny and highly fragmented. Most are poor and under developed. All were colonial possessions. In many instances,European or East Asian values have replaced the traditional values of the native culture. Since 1960, many of the island groups have successfully sought independence. Native arts, languages and values have resurged in some nations, but the European impact is probably permanent. Some island groups, such as French Polynesia (which includes Tahiti and the Marquesas) are administered as a Department or state of the colonizing country. These widely scattered island nations generally have small populations and are "off the beaten path" of modern world culture. That may explain why so many of us dream of escaping there: they are places where we can allow our senses to be overwhelmed by the benign incense of a paradise-like physical environment. KEY: 1 Northern Mariana Islands (U. S.) 2 Guam (U. S. 3. Belau 4 Federated States of Micronesia 5 Marshall Islands 6 Papaua New Guinea 7 Naurau 8 Kiribati 9 Solomon Islands 10 Vanuatu 11 New Caledonia (Fr.) 12 Fiji 13 Tuvalu 14 Wallace Fortuna (Fr.) 15 Western Samoa 16 Tonga 17 American Samoa (U.S.) 18 Niue 19 Cook Islands 20 French Polynesia (Fr.) 21 Pitcairn Islands (UK) You will notice horizontal and vertical lines around the relative size and position of the islands. These lines are political boundaries based on the latitude and longitude and do not reflect the shape of land masses. PLATE 37 ISLAND NATIONS OF THE PACIFIC